"Polygamous /polygynous societies are about four times more numerous than monogamous ones." In 1994, Theodore C. Bergstrom noted in his paper "On the Economics of Polygyny" [1] (http://www.econ.ucsb.edu/~tedb/Evolution/polygyny3.pdf) (U. Mich. Center for Research on Economic and Social Theory, Working Paper Series 94-11) that "Although overt polygamy is rare in our own society, it is a very common mode of family organization around the world. Of 1170 societies recorded in Murdock's Ethnographic Atlas, polygamy/ polygyny (some men having more than one wife) is prevalent in 850 societies.

At the same time, even within societies which allow polygamy, the actual practice of polygamy often occurs only rarely. To take on more than one wife often requires considerable financial resources, this may put polygamy beyond the means of the vast majority of people within those societies. Within polygamous societies, multiple wives often become a status symbol denoting wealth and power. Such appears the case in many traditional Islamic societies, and in Imperial China

Conversely, within societies which formally prohibit polygamy, social opinion may look favorably, or widely turn a blind eye, on persons maintaining mistresses or engaging in serial monogamy.

A person may be said to be practicing serial monogamy if that person only has one sexual partner at any one time, but has had more than one sexual partner in their lifetime. Partners can be married or unmarried, but there are never more than one at a time. The term "serial monogamy" is more often descriptive than prescriptive: relatively few people expect or want their relationships to end...or upon the death of a spouse. In more common usage, serial monogamy tends to refer to a long string of generally monogamous relationships which can often include more than one marriage.

Polygamy and religion

Christianity

The Greco-Roman society in which early Christianity developed was at least formally monogamous, yet the Old Testament clearly demonstrates polygamy among the Biblical patriarchs. Saint Augustine demonstrated this conflict in his consideration of Old Testament polygamy in The Good of Marriage (chapter 15, paragraph 17), where he wrote that it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also, I would not hastily pronounce. For there is not now necessity of begetting children, as there then was, when, even when wives bear children, it was allowed, in order to a more numerous posterity, to marry other wives in addition, which now is certainly not lawful." He declined to judge the patriarchs, but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptibility of polygamy. [Which seems to indicate that if a "mighty posterity" is a goal of a society then the practice of Biblical patriarchs is emulated.]

Periodically, Christian reform movements that have aimed at rebuilding Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (sola scriptura) have at least temporarily accepted polygamy as a Biblical practice. During the Protestant Reformation, Martin Luther advised Philip of Hesse that although he found nothing unbiblical about polygamy, he should keep his second marriage a secret to avoid public scandal. The radical Anabaptists of Muenster also practiced polygamy, but they had little influence after the defeat of the Muenster Rebellion in 1535. Sanctioned polygamy did not survive long within Protestantism.

Judaism

Although classical Jewish literature indicates that polygamy was permitted, the various segments of Judaism no longer practice polygamy. The first was Ashkenazi Jewry, which followed Rabbenu Gershom's ban since the 11th century. Some Sephardi groups only discontinued polygamy much more recently, to the point that the State of Israel had to make provisions for polygamic families immigrating after its 1948 creation.

Islam

Like the Christian Bible and Jewish Torah, the Islamic Qur'an does not prohibit polygamy. The Qur'an in verse 4:3 states:

"And if you fear you shall not be able to deal justly with the orphan girls, then marry (other) women of your choice; 2, 3 or 4, but if you fear you may not be able to deal justly (with them) then only one." (English translation by Dr Muhammad Taqi-ul-Din Al Hilali and Dr Muhammad Muhsin Khan)

This verse is linked to the preceding verse which relates to a man taking an orphaned girl as his wife. The caregivers of these orphan girls have an unfair advantage (especially during the time during which the Qur'an was revealed) over them if they wish to marry them. Being their guardians, they may be tempted to marry them without paying them their full dowries or in order to confiscate their inheritance. This verse is telling these men that if they fear that they cannot deal justly with the orphans whom they wish to marry, then they should marry other women (not orphaned women but free women with guardians and families who can look over and protect their rights).

It's important to note the context within which the term 'orphan girls' is being used here. Orphaned girls (that is, orphaned of both mother and father as well as any immediate family to look after them) at the time when the Qur'an was revealed had very low status in society and virtually no recognisable rights, unless a caregiver chose to take them in. The relationship of the caregiver to the orphaned girl would have to satisfy the criteria set out in the Qur'an verses 4:23 and 4:24 as to which women a man is permitted to marry under Islamic law in order for verse 4:3 to be valid.

-- but the text also states that perfect fairness is impossible in 4:129. Polygamy is also allowed in special situations, such as during a shortage of male adults after a war. However, the Qur'an strongly encourages monogamy for most Muslims.

Islam defends a man having at most four wives, but only if he can properly support that many.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, polygamy was practiced since ancient times. Hinduism does not prohibit polygamy but does not encourage it. Historically, only kings, in practice, were polygamous. For example, the Vijanagar emperor, Krishnadevaraya had multiple wives. In modern times, polygamy is prohibited under Indian law, specifically under those provisions which relate to Hindu marriage. However, Muslims in India are allowed to have multiple wives. As of October 2004, Muslims and Hindus are treated differently under Indian law. There have been efforts to propose a uniform marital law that would treat all Indians the same, irrespective of religion.

Mormon polygamy

The early Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (a.k.a. The Mormons) practised polygamy and referred to it as "Plural Marriage". It was practiced by Joseph Smith and a few other elect members since around the 1830's and publicly taught by the Church by 1852 as a sacred ordinance. Only some of the people in the church practiced polygamy. This practice was publicly introduced by Brigham Young, after the assassination of Joseph Smith - the Church's founder. The practice of polygamy quickly led to persecution of the Latter-day Saints and the enacting of laws against its practice. (The U.S. Congress made the practice illegal in U.S. Territories in 1862). Many members of the LDS fled to Canada and Mexico in an attempt to set up communities free from prosecution. For example Cyril Ogston fled to Canada and settled in Seven Persons, Alberta. Although Latter-day Saints believed that their religiously-based practice of plural marriage was protected by the United States Constitution, opponents used it to delay Utah statehood until 1896. Increasingly harsh anti-polygamy legislation stripped Latter-day Saints of their rights as citizens, disincorporated the Church, and permitted the seizure of Church property before the Church ordered the discontinuance of the practice in 1890.

National attention in the United States again focused on potential polygamy among the LDS in the early 20th century during the House hearings on Representative-elect B. H. Roberts and Senate hearings on Senator-elect Reed Smoot (the Smoot Hearings), which caused the Church President Joseph F. Smith to issue his "Second Manifesto" against polygamy in 1904. Since that time, it has been Church policy to excommunicate any member either practicing or openly advocating the practice of polygamy.

The ban on polygamy resulted in a schism within the Church, with various splinter groups leaving the Church to continue the practice of polygamy. Polygamy among these groups persists today in Utah and neighboring states, as well as among isolated individuals with no organized church affiliation. Polygamists of this kind are sometimes called "Mormon fundamentalists", despite their lack of affiliation with the mainstream LDS Church. This contemporary polygamy is estimated to be practiced by about 30,000 people. Most of the polygamy is believed to be restricted to about a dozen extended clans.

The practice of informal polygamy among these groups presents itself with interesting legal issues. It has been considered difficult to prosecute polygamists partly because they are not formally married under state law. Without evidence that suspected offenders have multiple, formal or common-law marriages, these groups are merely subject to the laws against adultery or unlawful cohabitation. These laws are not commonly enforced because they also criminalize other behavior that is otherwise socially sanctioned.

Another major concern has recently arisen with the discovery that many women are brought into these polygynous relationships prior to the age of consent, meaning that some men may be committing statutory rape. Many modern polygamists and polyamorists deliberately classify this form of polygyny as wholly separate from other forms of polygamy.

While most polygamists do not support the idea, a small minority of polygamous families use a system of multiple divorce and legal marriage known as serial polygamy. This is where the husband marries the first wife, she takes his last name, he divorces her and then marries the next wife who takes his name. [For polyandry relationships, it is the wife that marries and divorces the husbands one after another.] This is repeated until he has married and divorced all his wives, except possibly the last one. This way the wives feel justified in calling themselves Mrs. [husband's last name] and, while legally they're divorced from the husband, they act still married to him and expect those around them to acknowledge and respect this.

Since only one wife is married to the husband at any one time, no law was being broken and so this type of polygamous family unit could be overt about their relationship. In 2001, however, the state of Utah convicted Tom Green of criminal non-support and four counts of bigamy for having 5 serially monogomous marriages, while living with previous legally divorced wives. Because he had used that system of multiple divorce and marriage to defraud the state's welfare system, his cohabitation was considered evidence of a common-law marriage to the wives he had divorced while still living with them. That premise was subsequently affirmed by the Utah Supreme Court in State v. Green (http://www.utcourts.gov/opinions/supopin/greeni090304.htm), as applicable only in the State of Utah. It was Green's crime of criminal non-support which initiated the case in that one state. As that case applies only to Utah, it is therefore not a nationwide precedent on common-law marriage and polygamy.

[Years ago, the Supreme Court ruled against a Mormon husband who called polygamy his religious duty. Their decision: The First Amendment says you can believe what you want, but you cannot break the law.]

The Fundamentalist Church of Latter Day Saints are the most well known practitioners of polygamy in the United States, but they do not promote it beyond their own membership.

Authors such as David Friedman and Steve Sailer have argued that, counterintuitively, polygamy tends to benefit most women and disadvantage most men. Friedman uses this observation to argue in favor of legalizing polygamy, while Sailer uses it to argue against legalizing it.

The Libertarian Party defends complete decriminalization of polygamy.

Individualist feminism and advocates such as Wendy McElroy also supports the freedom for adults to voluntarily enter polygamous marriages. The law and society must assure the full range of rights of women and the protection against abuse. In contrast, radical feminism has generally aligned with Christian fundamentalists to stop polygamy.

Traditionally, polygamous marriages appear to be almost universally associated with inequality between the genders. Some Human Rights Activists see polygamy as an abuse issue based on law and not one that is related to religion but rather one that denigrates women and that is hidden behind the veil of religion. The official LDS Mormon church also supports enforcing laws against polygamy.

Those who advocate a federal marriage amendment to prohibit same-sex marriage generally word their proposed laws to also prohibit polygamy. The Colorado Supreme Court's disposition today suggests that it may look at reversing its previous stand, recognizing that polygamy, practiced within the law of age of marriagability and government financial assistance, must be permitted in the United States on a state legislated or perhaps even local option basis --unless of course, polygamists for some reason have fewer constitutional rights than homosexuals.

African Societies

The Akan of West Africa
The Igbo of Nigeria
The Dani of New Guinea - 30% have more than one wife.
The Ju/'hoansi of the Kalihari - 5% polygamous, seldom more than two wives.
The Kikuyu of Kenya. [see "Unbowed: A Memoir" by Wangari Maathai, 2006. Winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. Her father was a polygamist who had four wives in the village of Ihithe.]
The Koossas have but one wife; the kings and chiefs of the kraals have four or five wives.
The Xhosa have two wives, rarely more; those with least resources must be satisfied with one.
The Tswana,"it is estimated that 43% of men practice polygamy, and then only a very small minority have more than three wives. The practice of polygamy may, in most cases, be explained in terms of a levirate, a social practice, used to ensure the continued status and survival of widows and orphans within an established family structure. While it is true, therefore, that every rural family is potentially polygamous in nature, we need to question whether such polygamy was the result of "male sexuality and lust", as the missionaries would have it, or merely the enforcement of social obligations intended to reinforce ties between family or clan groupings. Recent data would seem to show that some 27% of rural households are currently headed by widowed or single women. If we were to assume that in the 1850s an equivalent number of women could have become widows and were thus absorbed into the monogamous households of family members, thus making them polygamous, then it will be seen that this form of union could have accounted for most of the polygamous marriages recorded by Livingstone among the Tswana. The remaining group, those with three wives or more, were a distinct minority and their polygamy may be explained in terms of group leaders creating political alliances and gaining control of resources for their own communities....The practice of polygamy may have been common in southern Africa up to the end of the last century but that it was never as widespread as has been popularly represented." http://sahistory.org.za/pages/specialprojects/kwamsiza/briefPolygamy.htm

Turkey

Polygamy is allowable as Islamic tradition but prohibited by Turkish law.

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